Gender in student access and teacher attention in classroom Essay

The school is one of the many social institutions which seek to promote human welfare. Students and teachers alike are both a part of the larger scheme of the academic institution aimed at expanding the knowledge of mankind from a wide range of themes. Despite of the existing and previous efforts in fully achieving and realizing these goals, several factors have â€Å"hindered academic institutions from meeting such ends (Kane, p. 419)†. Gender is one of the factors which â€Å"pose a limit in maximizing the acquisition of knowledge (McIntyre, p.80)†, both practical and theoretical, in the academic institutions such as schools. More particularly, gender plays a difference in student access and teacher attention in the classroom. It does not only limit the interaction from among students and teachers, it also limits the attention teachers give and students receive. This research is specifically aimed at identifying and analyzing the ways gender demarcates student access and teacher attention in the classroom setup through a critical appraisal of the various elements that contribute to it. Gender is considered to be â€Å"the femaleness or maleness of individuals (Pearson, p. 328)†, and these individuals include both students and teachers. On the other hand, classrooms are primarily the basic unit of the academic institution in terms of the aggregate of the students and teachers operating within the academic setup. This setup initially consists of learners or students, and facilitators of learning such as the teachers. What precisely are the ways in which gender plays a difference in student access and teacher attention within the classroom setup? In order to arrive at the probable ways and the related explanations behind these ways, it is imperative to consider several societal forces which contribute to these differences as well as the several other institutional forces commonly existing in schools. The role of forces in the society The setup of the society starting from earlier times has been observed to be dominated by males. In this sense, the society in earlier times is thought to be as a â€Å"patriarchal one where male dominance sets the general structure as well as the particularities in the society† (Kane, p.421). It can be noted that this previous setup of the society has had a profound impact in the present generation. And the profound impacts are quite observable in many ways. For instance, there are â€Å"occupations wherein males are more preferred over females for several reasons (Lopata and Thorne, p. 718)† which may include physical capabilities. These and other preferences based on certain factors will be further considered in the latter part of the paper. What is important to consider for now is the fact that preferences based on gender have been a result of the patriarchal domination especially in the past, and that this societal setup, whether or not it still exists today, has resulted to certain effects in contemporary times. Having an earlier patriarchal society resulted to an imbalance in gender roles (McCallops, p. 408). Males may have been given more roles and active participation whereas females may have shared a lesser fraction of participation. As a result, a disruption in the roles has paved the way for an imbalance in gender roles. However, it should be noted that the focus of the research is not to expound on the historical events that created this imbalance but rather to use this observation as the basis for the more contemporary gender differences in student access and teacher attention in the classroom. Apparently, more modern waves of changes have transpired. Feminist theories have countered the persistence of male dominance and have given more weight on the role of women. In this sense, it can be presumed that male and female students and teachers have been affected by these shifts in the society. A male student may have the consciousness that â€Å"male dominance has existed in the past (Lopata and Thorne, p. 720)† and is being challenged today. On the other hand, a female teacher may all the more break away from the patriarchal tradition by giving an equal share of participation between male and female students within the classroom. Nevertheless, whether or not the patriarchal setup of the society has been eradicated or gradually broken down, it remains a fact that there are gender delineations spread across classrooms in many parts of the world (Acker, p. 565). For instance, physical education activities have manifested the separation of roles between male and female students in the classroom. Physically daunting tasks such as lifting heavy objects designed to improve the body are more challenging among males than females precisely because males are given more of the ‘weight’ of the challenges. This is especially true in countries where tradition declares that â€Å"males should do more of the physical laboring (Kane and Macaulay, p. 5)†. This in turn results to differences in student access in the classroom in the sense that males appear to acquire more space in participating in physically challenging tasks in the classroom although females also share a part in this. It may be an all too simple occurrence with presumably a minimal significance, but the fact is that it reinforces the gender differences even more. Female students, on the other hand, share more of the classroom activities with limited physical requirements such as designing or planning activities although males also share a part in these activities. This is not to say that either male or female students are simply confined within the prescribed roles they are encouraged or even forced to perform. What is being shown is the fact that there are gender preferences in the classroom roles male and female students are engaged into which spell the difference in student access. Homosexuality is another issue that has a relevance to the issue of differences in student access. There are societies which have a â€Å"strong inclination to condemn homosexuality† (McCallops, p.409) such as those in Iran although there, too, are countries which have an open acceptance of homosexuality such as the Netherlands. This also has an impact on the student access in classrooms depending upon where the school is to be found. More specifically, religious schools which have a strict compliance with conservative religious dogma might have a â€Å"negative stance towards students who are homosexuals (Martin and Little, p. 1428)†. This may lead to limited access for students who are either gays or lesbians in terms of participation in classroom activities. The opposite may be true of schools which are liberal, learning institutions which do not discriminate in terms of gender and gender preference. In contrast to conservative schools, it may lead to a much broader participation for homosexuals in the classroom which heightens their access within the learning environment. Institutional factors It is a fact that there are aspects in the â€Å"learning institutions where gender demarcations are clearly exhibited (Blee, p. 163)†. These demarcations arise out of necessity simply because without these gender demarcations certain disorders may manifest. One of these demarcations among numerous institutions is comfort room. How is this related to student access and teacher attention in the classroom? The answer to this question rests on the basic premise that one small thing leads to another. To put it more precisely, the necessity of putting up separate comfort rooms for males and females, specifically among students, reinforces the consciousness of gender separation. Although the need to separate comfort rooms is perhaps an accepted need, it nevertheless â€Å"reinforces the belief in the male-female demarcation (Kane and Macaulay, p. 21)†. Even school uniforms contribute in a way to the clear gender demarcation. It should be reminded that this research does not contend the removal of these necessities but rather this research proposes the use of these gender demarcations as part of the number of hindrances in student access and teacher attention in the classroom. With these necessities, the classroom access of male and female students is hindered in terms of the reinforced belief in gender separation. And because of the individual performances of each student, the accessibility is either hindered or promoted all the more. For instance, a passive male student is more prompted to keep away from the attention of the teacher and to minimize interaction with other students because there is no compelling reason or stimulus that will prompt him to do otherwise. The â€Å"separation of genders out of necessity further reinforces this consciousness (Ackers, p.568)† as the passive male student becomes more and more absorbed into the thought of these demarcations which separate him not only from the rest of the male students but also from the female students. As mentioned earlier, subjects that need much physical exertion of force such physical education subjects give â€Å"more emphasis to the male capacity to perform the related physical tasks in the subject (Blee, p. 165)†, allowing for a limited participation from amongst female students. On the other hand, in cases where females have higher physical fitness to engage in physically challenging activities, the same may also be true. Moreover, gender preference in choosing teachers also contributes to the role of gender in teacher attention in the classroom. There are â€Å"certain curriculum subjects wherein female teachers are more preferred over males (Martin and Little, p. 1430)† such as subjects with the content of feminist studies, female reproductive system or the anatomy of females, and psychology of women just to name a few. On the other hand, there are also curriculum subjects wherein male teachers are more preferred over females. For instance, male instructors teaching the subject of male psychology may either have more attention towards male students in order to assess the knowledge or learning of these males with respect to the scope of the subject, or have more attention towards female students in order to assess the reactions and the absorbed knowledge of these students learned throughout the course of the subject. Moreover, it may also be the case that female students tend to be â€Å"more responsive in terms of the interaction of female students (Tobach and Carlin, p. 1595)† as they are able to relate more with one another in terms of gender. The opposite may also be true of male teachers and male students although there may also be cases wherein the reverse is true. Nevertheless, this only shows that gender plays a difference in teacher attention as well as student access in the classroom setup. Conclusion The school is one of the many social institutions intended to broaden the knowledge of students within the classroom and beyond, and gender is one of the numerous factors that share a role in student accessibility and teacher attention. Gender demarcations may arise out of necessity or out of artificial arrangements. But whatever the case may be, gender plays a role in student accessibility and teacher attention within the classroom. References Acker, Joan. â€Å"From Sex Roles to Gendered Institutions. † Contemporary Sociology 21. 5 (1992): 565-69. Blee, Kathleen M. â€Å"Teaching a Theory-Based Sociology of Gender Course. † Teaching Sociology 14. 3 (1986): 162-67. Kane, Emily W. â€Å"Racial and Ethnic Variations in Gender-Related Attitudes. † Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 419-39. Kane, Emily W. , and Laura J. Macaulay. â€Å"Interviewer Gender and Gender Attitudes. † The Public Opinion Quarterly 57. 1 (1993): 1-28. Lopata, Helena Z., and Barrie Thorne. â€Å"On the Term â€Å"Sex Roles†. † Signs 3. 3 (1978): 718-21. Martin, Carol Lynn, and Jane K. Little. â€Å"The Relation of Gender Understanding to Children’s Sex-Typed Preferences and Gender Stereotypes. † Child Development 61. 5 (1990): 1427-39. McCallops, James S. â€Å"Gender as a Teaching Tool: An American Example. † The History Teacher 31. 3 (1998): 408-09. McIntyre, Connie. â€Å"Writing About Nontraditional Roles. † The English Journal 84. 3 (1995): 80. Pearson, G. A. â€Å"Of Sex Gender. † Science 274. 5286 (1996): 328. Tobach, Ethel, and Norman F. Carlin. â€Å"Sex and Gender. † Science 274. 5293 (1996): 1595-96.

Super Essay

Writing an Essay See also: Super Tips – Differences between Essays, Reports and Journals Super Tips – Writing in an Appropriate Style Essays are usually written: †¢ to inform your reader about your position in relation to a particular issue †¢ to argue for change or recommend action †¢ to analyse problems and present solutions †¢ to present and evaluate research findings Writing an essay is an opportunity for you to develop new ideas and apply concepts and theories from your course. You’ll develop a thesis (or position) and use reasoning and evidence to support your point of view. A tertiary essay is similar to essays you’ve written at secondary school, particularly those written in your last couple of years at school. However, there are some differences you need to be aware of: †¢ Citing all the sources you use is extremely important. If you don’t, you’ll be guilty of plagiarism, which is taken very seriously by the University. You can find out how to cite your sources and write reference lists in the Learning Links – Referencing leaflet. Most essays will be longer than you’ve written at secondary school (most are between 1500 and 2500 words) and will be worth a large percentage of your semester’s marks. You’ll usually be expected to analyse issues at a deeper level than you did at secondary school. †¢ †¢ This resource has some useful hints on how to analyse your essay topic, plan and write your essay. Steps in the essay writing process Although no two writers work in the same way, there is a general system that many good writers follow. This system involves following the step-by-step process outlined below. Skim through the main points now, and when you need to write an essay, check out the extra information about each point. 1. Analyse the question – underline key words – put question into own words – look for hints on structure ‘Brainstorm’ the question – to take stock of what you already know 2. Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 1 – to give you a focus for your reading – to give you the beginnings of a plan 3. Start your research – begin with general reading – look for potential ways to structure your essay – remember to record bibliographical details and page numbers of references as you go Plan the essay – write down the main points/arguments, preferably using a mind map – write any secondary points and their relationship to the main points Continue your research – this is focused research, where you seek further information about each of the main points/arguments Write! most people find it easier to concentrate on the body first, then the conclusion, followed by the introduction †¢ decide on a logical order for your points/arguments †¢ remember that each paragraph should contain one idea, which is stated in the topic †¢ sentence. Other sentences in the paragraph should explain, give evidence for and possibly give examples. †¢ concentrate on one point at a time, but in your final editing, make sure each paragraph is linked to the next †¢ expect to write several drafts †¢ don’t worry about spelling, grammar, sentence structure or finding the ‘right’ word until you’ve finalised the content of the essay. . 5. 6. Analysing the question Once you’ve selected your topic, you need to be sure you understand what it means before you begin any researching or reading. A common problem is to make a quick assumption that you know what it means and what’s expected of you. However, if you’re wrong, even if you write a great essay, you won’t get very high marks if it doesn’t do what the topic says it will do. Here are some strategies: †¢ Underline or highlight the key content words or phrases and direction words (such as discuss, evaluate, analyse, etc. and make sure you understand them. It’s easy to overlook the direction words, but if you just describe something when you’ve been asked to analyse it, your essay is likely to get fe w marks. Check here to make sure you know the meaning of each. Here’s an example of the process: Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 2 Essay topic: ‘Explain the double-binds that managers are faced with in hierarchical organisations. The key content words are: double-bind; manager; and hierarchical organisations. The direction word is explain. You probably think you already know what these words mean, but it pays to make sure you’re not overlooking some part of the meaning. For instance, if you really think about these words, you might come up with these definitions: Explain: to analyse, focusing on the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a particular issue; to identify reasons, causes and effects; to go beyond describing and summarising. ouble-bind: a dilemma; an argument forcing an opponent to choose one of two equally bad alternatives a person conducting a business or institution; manager: a person controlli ng activities of a person/team hierarchical organisations: an organised system, or set of connected things or parts in some type of order such as order of importance. †¢ Re-write the topic in your own words. This is a useful way of checking whether you’ve really understood the question. For example, for the topic mentioned above, two possible ways of re-writing could be: ‘Analyse why and how the dilemmas come about that are faced by people who lead, guide and direct systems (organised with levels and ranks). Identify the causes and effects of these dilemmas. ’ ‘Analyse the causes and effects of dilemmas faced by persons leading, guiding and directing ranked systems. ’ †¢ Identify what concepts or ideas from your course apply to this topic (refer to your lecture or class notes and any other readings). Think about any controversies or arguments in relation to this topic (your lecturers or teachers will probably have referred to these). Write out a short statement giving your position on the topic. This may change after you’ve done some research and thought more about the topic, but if you do it at this stage it’s easier for you to keep focused. Write down relevant information about the topic. Make notes about the areas of the topic you need to research. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 3 †¢ Write a possible outline of the essay. This is likely to change as you research the topic but it’s useful to think of the organisation of your essay even at this stage. Brainstorming the question Brainstorming is a useful process to find out what you already know about the essay topic. Get a large piece of paper and let your mind go – write down anything that comes to mind when you think of the essay topic. It’s important that you don’t stop to think about whether what you’re writing is relevant or not. The next step is to look at what you’ve written and look for the beginnings of a plan for your essay. At this stage you can cross out anything you don’t think is relevant and, of course, add other things you think of. Beginning your research Now you need to locate appropriate references. You need to first read widely to get an overview of the topic, problem, issue or debate, then narrow your reading down to a few specific authors or key issues. You should find reference material in the library, in resources or bibliographies from your teacher or lecturer, and on the Internet. A word of warning when using the Internet, however – check to see that the information comes from a reliable and reputable source. Remember, also, that the RMIT librarians can help you. Remember to make notes as you go, and to record all bibliographic information as soon as you make a note or photocopy. It can take weeks of backtracking to find out where you got that wonderful quote you need to use! When you feel confident that you’ve read enough material, you need to develop a thesis statement. This is your position in relation to the topic. It’s the driving force throughout your essay. Planning your essay An essay outline is like the skeleton of your argument. You can do this linearly (writing a list of main points with secondary points indented) or visually (for instance, drawing a mind map or other diagram). Whichever format you use, you’ll need to identify: †¢ the main point †¢ your supporting points or elaborations †¢ the evidence you’ll use to support each point. Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 4 For an example of a linear and a mind map outline for an essay and the sample essay that was developed from them, check out the Learning Links – Sample Essay leaflet. Continuing your research This is the easy part of your research because you know what information you’re looking for. You’ve done your preliminary research and organised this information into an outline, and now your task is to find more information about each of the points on your outline. At this stage, as well as more information about points on your outline, you may find another point or two that you need to add. This is OK – just reorganise your essay outline. Writing your essay Finally, you can begin writing. You don’t have to write your essay in the same order that people read it. Sometimes you might find that writing the introduction first helps you to be clear about the content and intention of the essay. However, at other times you might find that it’s better to write in this order: †¢ †¢ †¢ Write the body first (because this is the most important part) then write the conclusion (so you can sum up while your main arguments are fresh in your mind) and finally write the introduction (because sometimes it’s difficult to write it until you’re clear about what it is you’re introducing). This is the stage when you need to think of the writing style. You need to write in an academic style (check out the Learning Links – Writing in an Appropriate Style leaflet) and you need to write clear paragraphs and sentences. Writing the body of the essay In the body of the essay, all the preparation you’ve done so far comes together. Follow the outline you’ve made already and write paragraphs with: †¢ †¢ †¢ Main Points Supporting Points Elaboration Main Point Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 5 Write down one of your main ideas, in sentence form. If your main idea is ‘private enterprise should not run public utilities', you might say this: The Longford Gas Inquiry revealed to the community the damaging consequences of private ownership of public enterprises. Supporting Point Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point. One of your supporting points may be: Private companies are obliged to run their operations in an entirely different way to government. Elaboration You may find the visual outline useful here. In the space under each supporting point, write down some elaboration for that point. Elaboration can be further description, explanation, examples, support from research or discussion: When the main point of an operation is to make a profit, efficiency and safety can be the first to suffer. A private company is not answerable to the Victorian community in the same way that the government is. Public utilities remain a matter of political importance even when they are privatised. You flesh out your body paragraphs in this way, and use joining sentences and quotations. Once you have fleshed out each of your body paragraphs, one for each main point, you are ready to continue. For example: When the Kennett Liberal government came to power in 1992, it considered that part of its mandate was the privatisation of a number of public enterprises. The first utilities to be sold off were gas and electricity. Although Esso had always operated a gas plant at Longford, (near Sale in East Victoria) it had previously done so in partnership the government through the Victorian Gas and Fuel Corporation. Esso now ran the plant and supplied the gas through Vencorp, a private company that had replaced one of the delivery functions of the Gas and Fuel Corporation. On Thursday 24 September 1998 a series of explosions at the Esso Longford plant left two people dead and eight injured. The explosion left gas supplies at dangerously low levels, with the only gas available for consumers being what was left in the pipes. Victorians faced a crisis in terms of dwindling gas supplies and naturally enough turned to their government for leadership. Whilst the governments was able to invoke special powers to protect gas supplies, it was not in fact responsible for the continuing delivery of gas to consumers. In this paragraph, which would probably be the first body paragraph, we have introduced our main point of privatisation, and sub-points of how that particular example worked. We have fleshed it out with factual information surrounding the situation, and closed the paragraph with reference to the explosion at Longford. In the second body paragraph which follows this one we might include a description of the explosion and its aftermath, and possibly why and how it happened Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 6 Writing the introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader’s attention and give an idea of the essay’s focus. You need to set out clearly, concisely and forcefully your approach to, and interpretation of, the question as well as your point of view on it. You might wish to agree with part of the question but disagree with other parts. If so, make sure this is clear in your introduction. The introduction should also include a general broad outline of the more detailed arguments you will write about in the main body of your essay. Most introductions have information organised from the general (broad) to the specific (narrow). Introductions should include: * A general statement introducing the topic * A thesis statement expressing your point of view * A statement outlining the areas and perspectives to be discussed * An outline of the organisation of the topic (optional) * Any definitions necessary for the reader to understand the topic (but if there are many, or if they need explaining at length, it’s better to do this in the next paragraph) Writing the conclusion A good conclusion should draw the arguments together and reinforce points made in the body of the essay. There is more variation in the contents and organisation of a conclusion than there is in an introduction. However, there are some features many have in common. A conclusion should: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ remind the reader of the thesis of the essay provide a summary of the main points and arguments point to the significance of your findings point out the implications of the issues not simply restate the introduction. contain no new material (i. e. it should not introduce any new points). Check the instructions for formatting and style Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. du. au/lsu February 2005 7 When you prepare your final draft, it’s important to follow all of the instructions you’ve been given. Some Departments, Schools and Faculties have a style guide for student writing, or sometimes you’re given a sheet at the beginning of the year with formatting and style instructions. If you haven’t been given any inform ation, ask your lecturer or teacher if they or the department have any style preferences. Here are some style and formatting questions you should find out: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ How big should the margins be? Is there an official cover sheet? What information (eg date, lecturer’s or teacher’s name, course number, etc) must you include? Should I double-space my lines? Should I put it in a folder or plastic sheet? What referencing style should I use? Check your writing This is the stage when you need to review, edit and proofread so you can improve the way you present your ideas. A good way to do it is to read your paper when it’s finished and then put it away for a couple of days. Read it again and answer these questions: †¢ †¢ †¢ Does it make sense? Is there a logical development of ideas? Do the sentences flow smoothly from one to another? If not, add some words to help connect them. Look at transition words you’ve used, such as therefore and however. If you’ve used the same transition words throughout your essay, check out some others you could use. Is your spelling, punctuation and grammar OK? Have you used the formatting requested by your lecturer or teacher? Have you used the referencing style expected by your lecturer or teacher? Have you checked your references list or bibliography to see that it is correctly formatted? †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Once you’ve checked your work, give it to someone else to read (preferably someone who isn’t familiar with your topic). Other people often pick up the simple mistakes or ‘typos’ such as writing and for an. When we read our own work, we often read what we think is there rather than what’s actually there. The final thing for you to do is to make sure you have another electronic copy as well as another printed copy just in case your essay goes astray. Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 8 These materials were produced by the RMIT Learning Skills Unit. For further information or comments please email judy. [email  protected] edu. au Learning Links Super Tips/writing an essay www. rmit. edu. au/lsu February 2005 9

International Marketing Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

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Criminal justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Correlation of Birth order and Motor development Research Paper

Correlation of Birth order and Motor development - Research Paper Example Development of movements are often invisible and aren’t recognizable at an early age. These physical impairments create numerous challenges for children affecting their psychological and physical development. Thus, Development Coordination Disorder (DCD) enables slow motor development, in children. It affects both intellectual and physical progress of a child. Children born with extreme low weight are more inclined to motor, cognitive and behavioral impairments and they increase with age. Therefore, recent record shows that preterm children are persistently diagnosed with deficient motor skills. Children have to go through a neuro-motor exam, which establishes their standard of DCD for treatment (Dewey et al., 2011).  Ã‚   Lehman has described birth order as customary environment and parental influence on children. The difference in behavior and physical growth is directly affected by the presence of siblings. However, these affects can differ due to optimistic and pessimist ic environment around the child. It also includes school’s environment, and its impact on child’s psychological and motor development. However, evaluation of relationship between birth order and academic achievements has shown pessimistic results. Investment of quality time by parents with higher order sibling has been observed less, which has resulted in negative and measured development of children (Lehmann et al, 2012).Child’s position in the family and sibling’s gender are important factors that affect development. However, psychological.

Textual Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Textual Analysis - Essay Example These myths are seen as the past of each gender, male and female. In her argument, she describes males as dominant over women. Men always try to be powerful than women by using some myths, while, in reality, this is not true. Beauvoir seeks to show that the myths that talk about women are indeed false and that in, reality, these women are different. These myths are developed because men are trying to be dominant over women, but in the modern world, this is not the case. Women are termed as equal to men. While the myths of men have indicated that males have control over females, this is not true today, and this is because things have changed and men no longer have control over women. Everything in today’s society is equal, and the myths that exist are no longer recognized, and they are far forgotten (Beauvoir 785). According to the version of Raines (72), men are powerful creatures in society, and they always see themselves as violent, virile and vital people. This is depicted in the character O’ Shaughnessy. This character sees him in front of a saloon with a gun, and as a frontier, he uses his skills of bullfighting to impress the blacks. In her argument, Raines says that the character is performing some rituals, by taking advantage of the blond Irish appearance. By so doing, he is revealing his strong place in society as that of a domineering male character. In the end, he is reduced to the status of a woman by his successful challenger who uses a knife to carve labium marjoram on his cheek. According to Raines the characters sex life has all the qualities of a fighter at war. This is further explained by the encounter O’ Shaughnessy has with Denise. The two are described as making love as fighters with physical violence and physical abuse. O’ Shaughnessy sees Denise as masculine in appearance and behavior. She is given the qualities of a kind lean force with muscles of a young boy who is aggressive (Raines 72). Raines further desc ribes the character as one who admires the qualities that Denise has like; pride, intelligence, one with the force of will and an independent individual. He further wishes to have these qualities because he believes by that he can acquire them by defeating Denise and turning her into a more passive and submissive woman. Raines further argues that O’Shaughnessy sees himself as a hero (73). He sees his sexual dominance as a force that is revitalizing and one which allows him to successfully, win in all the situations of life. He is seen quoting his penis as the avenger (73) because it serves as a symbol of weapon in the war. Raines continues her argument that, in a, sexiest society, the sexual power is the most valuable item in the social and cultural power. After the encounter with Denise, O’ Shaughnessy is portraying the quality of dominance. In that, he says he must make Denise dependent on him (73) by bringing her to her first orgasm. He believes this will make him s ure of victory at last. He is quite startled by Denise when she proves that she is a skillful opponent. Denise reveals to him that he has a feminine side that he does not know. This is because O’ Shaughnessy action in mouth love was passionate. He is wounded by these words, and he allows the female in him to betray his victory and finally Denise becomes a victor (Raines 73). However, O’Shaughnessy is quick to make excuses that would justify his failure to win. He states that Denise had won because she told the truth and

Market analysis of Jollibee Fast Food Restaurant Essay

Market analysis of Jollibee Fast Food Restaurant - Essay Example The company â€Å"Jollibee† was introduced in the year 1975 by five Chinese Filipino brothers known as the Tan Caktiong family. Initially, they opened a two branch ice-cream parlour (Thompson and Martin, 2005) which later developed into a fast food restaurant offering unique Filipino cuisine. Soon, the company emerged to be one of the most successful business food chains in Philippines. In 1981, Jollibee had established 11 stores in Manila whereas McDonald’s had just opened one store (Hill and Jain, 2011). By 2003, it had opened 467 stores in Manila and had earned a market share of more than 50% and revenue of $500 millions. It had surpassed the revenues of McDonalds in 2003 (Hill and Jain, 2011). The key strategies followed by Jollibee Company were as follows: ïÆ'Ëœ It offered American fast food but kept the Filipino cuisine in mind. For example, it served Asian style hamburgers and the pastas tasted like ‘Chinese Chowmein’. Desserts offered were of unique flavours like Peach Mango Pie and Banana Langka. They kept the local consumers’ taste and preference in mind (Thompson and Martin, 2005) ïÆ'Ëœ They studied the operation system and marketing strategies devised by McDonald’s very closely. Jollibee offered the same range of products but with a difference in taste, so that it would set them apart from its competitor (Hill and Jain, 2011). ïÆ'Ëœ Prices of food products were kept lower than that of McDonald’s (Hill and Jain, 2011).... Prices of food products were kept lower than that of McDonald’s (Hill and Jain, 2011). These strategies worked very well and eventually Jollibee became one of the most coveted and popular restaurants of Philippines. Environmental Analysis Current Market Trend and Position The company Jollibee is operating worldwide with 750 stores operating in the Philippines itself. It has become a market leader in fast food restaurant business. It enjoys a lion’s share of the profits that is greater than the other multinational brands combined. The company has embarked on an international expansion with 80 stores operating outside Philippines; 26 stores in the USA, 32 stores in Vietnam, 11 stores in Brunei and 7 stores in Qatar, Kuwait, Hong Kong and Jeddah. It has received the ‘Best Employer’ award in Philippines from Hewitt (Jollibee, 2013a). The company’s international marketing strategy has been a huge success and this is mainly due to the large flock of Filipi no population residing abroad, which provided as a readymade market base to the company (Gillespie, Jeannet and Hennessey, 2010). As per some theorists, the USA fast food market is saturated despite that Jollibee has performed very well in the US and the Middle East markets (Hill and Jain, 2011). According to a survey conducted in Philippines, Jollibee has received the highest ranking in the consumer category ahead of major brands like Nestle, Procter & Gamble, etc (Gillespie, Jeannet and Hennessey, 2010). Target customers The target customers of Jollibee Company would be consumers of all ages. Fast food is preferable among the teenagers and adults alike. Jollibee focuses on the importance of traditional family values and

CRJS478IP4 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CRJS478IP4 - Research Paper Example DNA profiling includes the extraction of the DNA from a specimen and separating the molecule to fragments. Since DNA varies from one individual to another, the patterns formed by the fragments are different and unique to the individual. DNA profiling is used expansively in the detection and prevention of crime as well as ensuring that prosecutions are safe (McDonald & Lehman, 2011). DNA profiling is important in the law enforcement process because it offers the possibility of determining whether biological materials found at the crime scene belong to the person suspected of committing the crime. The process can be utilized in identifying rapists in sexual assault cases. The main advantage of DNA profiling as compared to other serological tests is that DNA tests can be conducted with more accuracy. DNA profiling is more specific compared to other tests such as HLA and ABO typing. A DNA profile can be obtained from the tinniest body tissue found at the scene and this makes DNA profiling desirable since only very little evidence is needed (Toom, 2012). In rape case investigations, relevant evidence that can be collected from the scene include used condoms, clothes, sheets and other physical evidence such as hair, skin fibers and trace evidence. In rape cases, there are two crime scenes, which are the place the act took place and the victims’ body. Evidence from both these environments is essential to investigations. Used condoms often contain body fluids, especially semen, and this can be helpful in identifying the perpetrator through the use of DNA profiling. Clothes and sheets also have biological material from both the victim and the perpetrator and analysis of these can yield sufficient information to form a profile of the perpetrator. Likewise the other physical evidence and trace evidence would probably have body cells from the perpetrator of the crime and these

Wine production and tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Wine production and tourism - Essay Example Focusing on wine tourism as a growing area of business, the researcher laid the background on the premise that, the key to the continued growth and success of wineries in the world's wine producing region is in meeting customer's expectations and wine products attributes.Using an importance performance analysis, the study revealed how well an operation performs with respect to the attributes most important to guests. The study focused on 353 visitors to wineries and used modified SERVQUAL methodology; The study also offers a chance for the Tourists to taste wineries premium products.In recent years, the growth in tourism in the world's wine producing regions has grown rapidly. This has not only attracted the attention of researchers with increasing attention on various aspects of wine tourism, but has attracted the flow of international capital towards this direction. Wine tourism today is widely acknowledged as a growing area of special interest as agued by the researcher.The main p roblem statement of the research is defined within three folds. Firstly the study focused on visitors' perceptions of the service received at the cellar door-that is, at the winery-and the effect of that service on consumer satisfaction, brand loyalty, and long-term behavioral intention. The study addressed further, the issue of customer service in the emerging wine-tourism sector. Thus an important objective of the study is the definition of the concept of wine tourism as it analysed the linkages between wine quality and brand values, as well as the role of a visit to the cellar door in reinforcing these linkages. Another objective of this paper is the identification of the attributes of service quality as they apply to visits to wineries. 1.2 Research Methods and Design In the study, the researcher adopted a largely quantitative approach to identify significant trends among current visitors to wineries. The researcher however, criticized the method as not well suited to exploring the underlying symbolism or meaning of a visit to a winery34 or to gaining a deep understanding of the needs and motivations that lead individuals to visit a winery. Such an approach would form a future avenue of inquiry, and our quantitative survey may indicate questions that could usefully be explored with deeper qualitative research. 1.3 Findings of Research The researcher ran a series of T-tests and evaluated where mean performance scores differed significantly from the mean importance scores. The findings revealed a high degree of colinearity within the results for both the perception and the importance measures. According to the researcher, the result presented true accurate reflections of Visitor's perception when recorded. Results of the study also showed operators in the wineries are marginally underperforming as visitors proofed to be unhappy with the quality of wine offered for tasting, as most premium wines were out of stock and the wine tasting fees were high. The study came out with many exciting findings. The study first of all found out that Operators do seem to be experiencing some difficulty, though, with respect to the relational aspects of the cellar-door experience. This interesting finding reinforced the importance of

Charging Overweight Passengers by the Pound Essay Example for Free

Charging Overweight Passengers by the Pound Essay In the world today, obesity is becoming a serious problem that affects ones life in different situations. One of these situations is flying in the airplane. David Landsel in his article Some Airlines Make Obese Passengers Buy Two seats pointed out that different airlines are taking some policies concerning this issue. However, united airlines are not taking any policies. Southwest and Midwest airlines claimed that overweight passengers should buy an extra seat. If the airplane is not full, and more seats are available, a refund will be returned to the passenger. American airlines put limitations on the services that the airline provides, but passenger is not forced to purchase an extra seat. Air France travelers that suffered from obesity will have the opportunity to buy the extra seat with a 25 percent discount. With these different deals about the fat passengers, there is surely a disagreement about accepting these policies or rejecting them. Obese passengers should buy two airline seats. This is because of several reasons that may be benefit for the obese passengers and the normal weight passengers. So this will help make everyone more comfortable. Some critics claim that obliging obese passengers to buy an extra seat is a ridiculous statement. They should not be penalized for something that they may not be able to deal with. They might have a disease that makes them that way. They argued that this is discrimination to obese people and should not be practiced. But this is not true. Discrimination against someone for something is based on an opinion without objective truth. In this case, it is completely obvious that the passenger is taking up more space than the accommodated seat space. So the argument of the opposing side fails to take into account. Other critics argued that airline tickets are sold per individual not per pound, and people should not be penalized because of their weight. This is a non convincing argument since airlines sell tickets by seat not per person. If someone takes up to two seats, he should have to buy two seats. That is how it is and should be. Obese people sitting in a single seat can become a serious issue. Passenger will seriously squeeze the passengers beside him, leading discomfort and cause a struggle to get out of the seat to the toilet. No one would accept an obese person sitting next to him squishing and taking more than his space for the whole entire flight. It is not fair to the people sitting next to fat travelers who are crushed and uncomfortable for the whole flight. Skinny people will be crowded out by overweight people. Second, airplane seats and seat belts are designed to hold an average weight of 170 pounds, so seat belts fail to restrain heavy passengers. This poses a safety risk for them on the aircraft. Another airline obesity issue is that obese passengers can affect the balance of the airplane by adding more weight. This excess weight requires more work for the plane to move a heavier object which makes the airplane sometimes in a dangerous position. One third argument that supports the statement that obese travelers should buy two airlines seats is that everyone is entitled to hundred percent of the seat for which he paid. Severely, obese people spill over to the next seat that is occupied by the person that purchased the ticket to that seat. Sometimes, fat passengers took up one third to one half of the other passenger seat space. So if any person takes up more than one seat space, he must purchase the additional space he requires. Urging passengers with high body mass to purchase an extra seat is a fair policy that needs to be done by the airlines in order to keep all their flights safe and comfortable for all the passengers. So, obese people must know that airlines are taking these policies to protect them. Deltas Suzan Elliott states that the airline has no plans to implement any policy that discriminates against any of our passengers. This is how all the airlines think about this issue, but the difference is the way they practice these policies and deal with them with regard to the refund and the cost of the extra seat.

Magic Realism in One Hundred Years of Solitude

Magic Realism in One Hundred Years of Solitude Magic Realism is a term found by art historian Franz Roh in 1925, to describe a visual arts movement emerging throughout Europe. It is known that a large number of critical terms in literature are borrowed from painting. Magic Realism is one of those terms. The usage of that technique leads the author make the themes and subjects are more imaginary, outlandish and with a fantastic dream like quality. Gabriel Garcia Marquez, who is the author of One Hundred Years of Solitude, does not like to be considered a writer of Magic Realism, even it is clear to see Magic Realism technique in his novel, he claims only to be realist without much exaggeration in his work. He states, As the final judgment runs, the source of all creation is reality. In One Hundred Years of Solitude for example, the banana company treats its workers so badly that they all go on strike. They gathered in the main square of the town, where the government has them surrounded by soldiers armed with machine guns. When the crowed refuses to disperse, the order is given to open fire, and three thousand people are killed. Their corpses are, then, put into the trains and sent off to the sea, and the whole incident is officially denied to the point that Jose Arcadio Segundo finds it impossible to persuade anyone that it has taken place. For a European observer, the ability of a government to hide such incidents is indeed unbelievable. However, in Latin America, as well in the most of the third world countries, the situation is still worse than can be imagined. To the eye of European and North American common sense, the career of the Central character in One Hundred Years of Solitude Colonel Aureliano clearly belongs to the realm of magic and fantasy and not of reality. For, in the course of his career he, Organized thirty two armed uprisings and he lost them all, he had seventeen male children by seventeen different women and they were exterminated one after the other in a single night he survived fourteen attempts on his life, seventy three ambushes and a firing squad. He lived through a doze of strychnine in his coffee that was enough to kill a horse. He refused the Order of Merit He rose to be the commander in chief of the revolutionary forces with jurisdiction and command from one border to the other and the man most feared by the government Although he always fought at the head of his men, the only wound that he received was the one he gave himself. He shot himself in the chest with a pistol and the bullet came out through his back wi th out damaging any vital organ. (MÃ ¡rquez, 2003) Early in the novel, a mysterious girls arrives who either cannot or will not speak and whom they call Rebecca. She brings with her the sickness of insomnia of which the most fearsome part, as an Indian woman explains, was not the impossibility of sleeping, for the body did not feel any fatigue at all, but its inexorable evolution towards a more critical manifestation; a loss of memory. Melquiades, a man of letters discovered its remedy but before him, Jose Arcadia has already invented a memory machine in which he has recorded almost fourteen thousand entries. World, in this way, becomes a slave of dictionary as it refuses all possibility of change by overcoming the loss of memory. It is not difficult to count a number of reasons for these apparently incredible details, which Gabriel Garcia Marquez provides in his work, but the most convincing one is, perhaps the obvious mundane purpose of enabling him to avoid censorship. Marquez technique has also been described as a kind of narrative hyperbole which seeks to expand the sensibility with which we perceive the world we live in. In One Hundred Years of Solitude, Marquezs characters are often endowed with a kind of supernatural power. Aureliano can see the future. Remedios The Beauty is taken up into the clouds as a divine being. Melquiades survives death, and stays on earth as a ghost. Ursula chooses not to die and lives for over a hundred years. In One Hundred Years ofnSolitude, if the resolution is strong enough, nothing can overpower it. It is perfectly possible for people to have power over even death. The characters struggle to create and define their own worlds, their fight is against time, history and fate. It could be said that Marquez endowment of his characters with special power is an illustration of our powerlessness against forces which remain outside our control. By crossing the border of normal possibility, Marquez reminds us of the limit ations of our own real lives, but also of the possibility of viewing the world in an entirely different way. Marquezs characters struggle to control, and to create their own world. It is through this act of creation that we can truly escape the forces in life over which we have no control. Marquez suggests that literature is the means by which we can gain understanding of a world-view different from our own, and therefore an understanding of our common humanity. While politics and ideology have the power to de-humanise, literature has the power to remind us of our humanity. Through imagination, and art, we can be elevated from the restrictions we face in day to day life, and we can also be enlightened as to the true potential of our lives, and our own individual power to create and shape our own destinies. Bibliography MÃ ¡rquez, G. G. (2003). PURPLE PATCH: Liberal Paradise . Retrieved from Daily Times: http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_3-12-2003_pg3_7

Capital Expenditures Essay -- Finances Financial Corporations Essays

Capital Expenditures Capital expenditures have a significant impact on the financial performance of the firm; therefore, criteria for selecting projects must be evaluated with great care. Of the two corporations the firm is deciding to acquire, Corporation B is clearly the better investment as shown in Table 1 supported by the following data: net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), payback period, profitability index (PI), discounted payback period, and modified internal rate of return (MIRR) in addition to 5 year projections of income and cash flows. The 5 year projections of both Corporations A and B’s income statements and cash flows indicate that between the two corporations, Corporation B will maximize the firm’s value the most. This decision is further evidenced by the net present value obtained for both corporations. NPV is defined as the sum of the present values of the annual cash flows minus the initial investment. If the net present value (NPV) of all cash flows is positive, the project will be profitable. The NPVs for both corporations suggest that both projects are worthwhile, since each has a positive NPV, however, since the firm can only acquire one of the corporations, it must choose the acquisition of the corporation with a higher NPV – Corporation B. The Internal Rate of Return, IRR, is another business tool used for capital budgeting decision. IRR is the discount rate at which the present value of a series of investments is equal to the present value of the returns on those investments (NPV = 0). It is the compound return the firm will get from the project. IRR also takes into account the time value of money by considering the cash flows over the lifetime of a project. If IRR is greater than the discount rate, the firm may undertake the project in question. In this situation, acquisition of either corporation is worthwhile since each has an IRR greater than their respective discount rates, but since IRR gives the project’s compound rate of return, the project providing the higher compound rate of return should be selected which means that Corporation B is preferred to Corporation A. Both NPV and IRR analyses support the acquisition of Corporation B. In cases where a conflict exists between NPV and IRR as to which competing projects to choose, the project with the larger NPV should ... ..., the main concern should be on how the investment will affect the value of the firm’s stock more so than how long it takes to recover the investment that presupposes that the project does add value for stockholders. When using the payback period as a criterion for capital budgeting decision, it is better to use the discounted payback as it takes into account the time value of money although still inferior to NPV. In both projects, the initial cost is recovered even after discounting the cost of capital. In this situation, however, the difference in discounted payback period is negligible. In summary, after review of the 5 year projections of cash flows for both corporations and all other supporting data provided in this report, the firm should proceed with the acquisition of Corporation B. Had the firm have unequal projected years available to them for review, for instance, Corporation A had a 5 year projection of cash flows and Corporation B with a 7 year projection of cash flows, the decision outcome should be no different since analysis of NPV, IRR, MIRR, PI, payback period and discounted payback period will be carried out for the respective cash flows.

Health Care in the Global South Essay -- traditional medicine

Health care and usage in the global south has always been a phenomenon of interest to both researchers and policy makers alike. This keen interest is embedded in the special demographic characteristics of this part of the world coupled with poverty and underdevelopment. This region has more than 50% (5.8 billion) of the world’s 7 billion population and a natural population growth rate of over 2% (Population Reference Bureau 2013); coupled with this huge demographic character is high rate of poverty, conflict, famine and high prevalence of infectious and communicable diseases. Compound to this plight, is a weak and bad biomedical health system which barely serve just about 20-30% of its population (Neumann and Lauro 1982). However, a phenomenon of interest in this health catastrophe is the traditional medicine system and its wide usage by the population in many countries in the south. The diversity of traditional medicine and its integration with the culture and beliefs of many societies in the south has encouraged studies and research over the years. The aim of these studies have been to understand the nature of traditional medicine and its ability to succeed where biomedicine has failed – access and usage; it is estimated that up to 80% of the population in the global south depends on Traditional medicine to meet their care needs (WHO 2002) With the colonization of many countries in the global south, came western lifestyle and social institutions. These social institutions included religion and health. From the onset of colonialism, the colonial leaders in the global south championed the course of teaching and training the indigenes in this region in western ideologies and practices which will foster their development. This s... ...frican countries. International nursing review, 50(4), 242-250. Twumasi P.A. 1987. Evaluation of Traditional Birth Attendants Programme in Ghana. Ministry of Health. Accra Twumasi P.A. 1988. Social Foundations of the interplay between Traditional and Modern Medical Systems. Ghana Universities Press. Accra World Bank 2010. Poverty and Equity Data. Accessed 20th May, 2014 http://data.worldbank.org/topic/poverty WHO 2000. Development of National Policy on Traditional Medicine. Manila. WHO 2001. Legal Status of Traditional Medicine and Complementary/Alternative Medicine: A World Wide Review. Geneva: World Health Organization WHO 2002. WHO traditional medicine strategy 2002-2005. Geneva: World Health Organization WHO 2007. World health statistics 2007. Geneva: World Health Organization WHO 2011. World Health Statistics 2011. Geneva: World Health Organization

The impact of migration on families around the world

Migration has been an on going phenomena from past to present. Individuals, families or group of people may leave a country voluntarily because of events such as harsh environmental or economic conditions. Migration has always been an important part of human endeavour. Migration can have positive and negative impacts on the families and also the country. With pros such as freedom, job vacancies and benefits to host country, it's no surprise most people don't have second thoughts about the cons such as effects on child, decrease in economy and propagation of diseases. Firstly migrants frequently settle in places with lesser population. These places would be having a shortage of skilled labour due to the decreased population. The migrants bring with them enough skills that will help support the economy. The migrants may be skilled people like doctors or unskilled people like construction workers. Migrants may increase unemployment in certain areas, but this is compensated by their raising the overall level of demand like housing and household related goods, needs†¦This promotes both a higher level and a wider range of goods and services produced, stimulating the economy and job growth. Migrants help to reduce labor shortages and also attract international traders through their foreign knowledge and language skills. Secondly migrants will be usually willing to fill job vacancies that local people are unwilling to fill. These include jobs such as babysitting, cleaning and other activities. This is an advantage for the existing community. Migration benefits not only the migrants, but also the countries that receive them, and even the countries they have left. Migrants doing these jobs live a happy and free life in a country where they get equal opportunity and thereby secure a better future for themselves and their families. For many young people, the experience and skills they acquire in the jobs to which they have migrated can serve as a step to further migration for better paid jobs. In addition to this researchers concur unanimously in reporting that migratory workers use part of their savings from working to improve their homes, whether by decorating them, extending them or introducing basic services such as electricity, water and drainage. Similarly, it is common to find that localities with migrants benefit from their contributions by receiving monetary support that helps them to improve diverse services, whether urban infrastructure, health, religious, educational or entertainment services. In towns with migrants it is common to find acknowledgments from the residents to their fellow townsmen for having helped them build a school or health clinic, or to introduce drinking water or build or improve the church,†¦. However the importance of keeping in regular contact: e-mails and text messages can in no way substitute for the physical presence of a parent, but they can help a child feel connected with family members who are away. Finally, there is the importance of the family's relations and communication before the migration. Many parents presumably do not migrate unless they think their children can cope in the first place. A factor found to be extremely important is the child's understanding of, and support for, the family goal. In fact, an individual's migration can be highly valued within a family: it can give status, not only for the material objects the migration may bring, but in more symbolic form of being the family member who gives for others. Some of these observations might be extrapolated to the situation of children affected by HIV and AIDS. Moreover it is generally believed that those migrants who have had the courage to leave one country and move to another are often enterprising and entrepreneurial, even if poor. As such, in many countries, migrants often set up small businesses. They however, become easy targets when the general economic conditions in that host country worsen. In other cases, people become migrants because they have fleed worsening conditions or persecution. In that situation, although they may live in another country, it may initially be quite difficult to adapt and change practices and customs. In such situations migrants are clearly seen as different and in worsening economic times can be seen as sapping away resources that could otherwise have been used for local populations. Furthermore migrating parents may decide, whether by choice or due to untenable circumstances to leave their children in their country of origin, planning either to return to their household of origin or to reunite much later in their destination country. The decision of one or both parents to migrate and consequently, to leave children behind, may be the result of an individual altruistic decision to send remittances in order to make their family members' lives better, or the result of household utility maximization that may take into consideration also the risks and perils of travel. Children whose parents are working abroad have a similar profile to those living in mono-parental families resulting from the parents' separation or from the death of one parent. This shows that, although the work abroad is temporary, the impact on the children could be similar to that of the loss of a parent, through divorce or death. In conclusion, children whose parents are working abroad should be considered at risk. That would be a first recommendation to children protection authorities, who should find solutions to strengthen the relations between school and the social services system. For many migrants, migration represents an alternative for supporting their families. Nevertheless, while going to work abroad contributes significantly to household incomes, it also has many social costs. Migration also affects social relations. Migration also changes the roles within the family additional tasks must be assumed by those left behind.

Gendered Media

Article 7 Gendered Media: The Influence of Media on Views of Gender Julia T. Wood Department of Communication, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill times more often than ones about women (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989), media misrepresent actual proportions of men and women in the population. This constant distortion tempts us to believe that there really are more men than women and, further, that men are the cultural standard. THEMES IN MEDIA Of the many influences on how we view men and women, media are the most pervasive and one of the most powerful.Woven throughout our daily lives, media insinuate their messages into our consciousness at every turn. All forms of media communicate images of the sexes, many of which perpetuate unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting perceptions. Three themes describe how media represent gender. First, women are underrepresented, which falsely implies that men are the cultural standard and women are unimportant or invisible. Sec ond, men and women are portrayed in stereotypical ways that reflect and sustain socially endorsed views of gender.Third, depictions of relationships between men and women emphasize traditional roles and normalize violence against women. We will consider each of these themes in this section. Underrepresentation of Women A primary way in which media distort reality is in underrepresenting women. Whether it is prime-time television, in which there are three times as many white men as women (Basow, 1992 p. 159), or children’s programming, in which males outnumber females by two to one, or newscasts, in which women make up 16% of newscasters and in which stories about men are included 10 MEDIA’S MISREPRESENTATION OF AMERICAN LIFEThe media present a distorted version of cultural life in our country. According to media portrayals: White males make up two-thirds of the population. The women are less in number, perhaps because fewer than 10% live beyond 35. Those who do, like t heir younger and male counterparts, are nearly all white and heterosexual. In addition to being young, the majority of women are beautiful, very thin, passive, and primarily concerned with relationships and getting rings out of collars and commodes. There are a few bad, bitchy women, and they are not so pretty, not so subordinate, and not so caring as the good women.Most of the bad ones work outside of the home, which is probably why they are hardened and undesirable. The more powerful, ambitious men occupy themselves with important business deals, exciting adventures, and rescuing dependent females, whom they often then assault sexually. From Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture by Julie T. Wood, Chapter 9, pp. 231-244. 0 1994. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Thomson Learning. Fax 800-730-2215. 31 T LI Y IIYC~ WI I H MEDIA Other myths about what is standard are similarly fortified by communication in media.Minorities are even less visi ble than women, with African-Americans appearing only rarely (Gray, 1986; Stroman, 1989) and other ethnic minorities being virtually nonexistent. In children’s programming when African-Americans do appear, almost invariably they appear in supporting roles rather than as main characters (O’Connor, 1989). While more African-Americans are appearing in prime-time television, they are too often cast in stereotypical roles. In the 1992 season, for instance, 12 of the 74 series on commercial networks included large African-American casts, yet most featured them in stereotypical roles.Black men are presented as lazy and unable to handle authority as lecherous, and/or as unlawful, while females are portrayed as domineering or as sex objects (â€Å"Sights Sounds, and Stereotypes,† 1992). Writing in 1993, David Evans (1993, p. 10) criticized television for stereotyping black males as athletes and entertainers. These roles wrote Evans, mislead young black male viewers in& t hinking success â€Å"is only a dribble or dance step away† and blind them to other, more realistic ambitions. &panics and Asians are nearly absent, and when they are presented it is usually as villains or criminals (Lichter, Lichter, Rothman, & Amundson, 1987). Also under-represented is the single fastest growing we are aging so that people over 60 make up a major part of our population; within this group, women significantly outnumber men (Wood, 1993~). Older people not only are under-represented in media but also are represented inaccurately In contrast to demographic realities, media consistently show fewer older women than men, presumably because our culture worships youth and beauty in women.Further, elderly individuals are frequently portrayed as sick, dependent, fumbling and passive, images not borne out in real life. Distirted depictions of older people and especially older women in media, however, can delude us into thinking they are a small, sickly, and unimportant part of our population. group of Americans- older people. As a country, Stereotypical Portrayals of Women and Men In general, media continue to present both women and men in stereotyped ways that limit our perceptions of human possibilities.Typically men are portrayed as active, adventurous, powerful, sexually aggressive and largely uninvolved in human relationships. Just as’ consistent with cultural views of gender are depictions of women as sex objects who are usually young, thin beautiful, passive, dependent, and often incompetent and dumb. Female characters devote their primary energies to improving their appearances and taking care of homes and people. Because media pervade our lives, the ways they misrepresent genders may distort how we see ourselves and what we perceive as normal and desirable for men and women.Stereotypical portrayals of men. According to J. A. Doyle (1989, p. ill), whose research focuses on masculinity children’s television typically shows ma les as â€Å"aggressive, dominant, and engaged in exciting activities from which they receive rewards from others for their ‘masculine’ accomplishments. † Relatedly, recent studies reveal that the majority of men on prime-time television are independent, aggressive, and in charge (McCauley Thangavelu, & Rozin, 1988). Television programming foi all ages disproportionately depicts men as serious confident, competent, owerful, and in high-status ‘positions. Gentleness in men, which was briefly evident in the 197Os, has receded as established male characters are redrawn to be more tough and distanced from others (Bayer, 1986). Highly popular films such as LethaI Weapon, Predator, Days of Thunder, Total Recall, Robocop Die Hard, and Die Harder star men who embody the The lack of women in the media is paralleled by the scarcity of women in charge of media. Only about 5% of television writers, executives, and producers are women (Lichter, Lichter, & Rothman, 1986) .Ironically, while twothirds of journalism graduates are women, they make up less than 2% of those in corporate management of newspapers and only about 5% of newspaper publishers (â€Å"Women in Media,† 1988). Female film directors are even rnonz-scarce, as are executives in charge of MTV It is probably not coincidental that so few women are behind the scenes of an industry that so consistently portrays women negatively Some media analysts (Mills 1988) believe that if more women had positions o; authority at executive levels, media would offer more positive portrayals of women. tereotype of extreme masculinity Media, then reinforce long-standing cultural ideals of masculinity:’ Men are presented as hard, tough, independent, sexually aggressive, unafraid, violent, totally in control of all emotions, and-above all-in no way feminine. Equally interesting is how males are not presented. J. D. Brown and K. Campbell (1986) report that men are seldom shown doing housework. Do yle (1989) notes that boys and men are rarely presented caring for others. B.Horovitz (1989) points out they are typically represented as uninterested in and incompetent at homemaking, cooking, and child care. Each season’s new ads for cooking and cleaning supplies include several that caricature men as incompetent buffoons, who are klutzes in the kitchen and no better at taking care of children. While children’s books have made a limited attempt to depict women engaged in activities outside of the home there has been little parallel effort to show men involbed in family and home life. When someone is shown taking care of a child , ‘t is usually the mother, not the father. ’ This perpetuates a negative stereotype of men as uncaring and uninvolved in family life. Stereotypical portrayals of women. Media’s images of women also reflect cultural stereotypes that depart markedly from reality As we have already seen, girls and 7. Gendered Media JILL I rem ember when I was little I used to read books from the boys’ section of the library because they were more interesting. Boys did the fun stuff and the exciting things. My mother kept trying to get me to read girls’ books, but I just couldn’t get into them.Why can’t stories about girls be full of adventure and bravery? I know when I’m a mother, I want any daughters of mine to understand that excitement isn’t just for boys. women are dramatically underrepresented. In prime- time television in 1987, fully two-thirds of the speaking parts were for men. Women are portrayed as significantly younger and thinner than women in the population as a whole, and most are depicted as passive, dependent on men, and enmeshed in relationships or housework (Davis, 1990). The requirements of youth and eauty in women even influence news shows, where female newscasters are expected to be younger, more physically attractive, and less outspoken than males (Craft, 19 88; Sanders & Rock, 1988). Despite educators’ criticism of self-fulfilling prophecies that discourage girls from success in math and science, that stereotype was dramatically reiterated in 1992 when Mattel offered a new talking Barbie doll. What did she say? â€Å"Math class is tough,† a message that reinforces the stereotype that women cannot do math (â€Å"Mattel Offers Trade-In,† 1992).From children’s programming in which the few existing female characters typically spend their time watching males do things (Feldman & Brown, 1984; Woodman, 1991), to MTV, which routinely pictures women satisfying men’s sexual fantasies (Pareles, 1990; Texier, 1990), media reiterate the cultural image of women as dependent, ornamental objects whose primary functions are to look good, please men, and stay quietly on the periphery of life. Media have created two images of women: good women and bad ones. These polar opposites are often juxtaposed against each other t o dramatize differences in the consequences that befall good and bad women.Good women are pretty, deferential, and focused on home, family and caring for others. Subordinate to men, they are usually cast as victims, angels, martyrs, and loyal wives and helpmates. Occasionally, women who depart from traditional roles are portrayed positively, but this is done either by making their career lives invisible, as with Claire Huxtable, or by softening and feminizing working women to make them more consistent with traditional views of fernininity For instance, in the original script, Cagney and Lacey were conceived as strong, mature, independent women who took their work seriously and did it well.It took 6 years for writers Barbara Corday and Barbara Avedon to sell the script to CBS, and even then they had to agree to subdue Cagney’s and Lacey’s abilities to placate producer Barney Rosenzweig, who complained, â€Å"These women aren’t soft enough. These women arenâ€⠄¢t feminine enough† (Faludi, 1991, p. 150). While female viewers wrote thousands of letters praising the show, male executives at CBS continued to force writers to make the characters softer, more tender, and less sure of themselves (Faludi, 1991, p. 152).The remaking of Cagney and Lacey illustrates the media’s bias in favor of women who are traditionally feminine and who are not too able, too powerful, or too confident. The rule seems to be that a woman may be strong and successful if and only if she also exemplifies traditional stereotypes of femininity-subservience, passivity, beauty, and an identity linked to one or more men. The other image of women the media offer us is the evil sister of the good homebody Versions of this image are the witch, bitch, whore, or nonwoman, who is represented as hard, cold, aggressive-all of the things a good woman is not supposed to be.Exemplifying the evil woman is Alex in Fatal Attraction, which grossed more than $100 million in i ts first four months (Faludi, 1991, p. 113). Yet Alex was only an extreme version of how bad women are generally portrayed. In children’s literature, we encounter witches and mean stepmothers as villains, with beautiful and passive females like Snow White and Sleeping Beauty as their good counterparts. Prime-time television favorably portrays pretQ nurturing, other-focused women, such as Claire Huxtable on â€Å"The Cosby Show,† whose career as an attorney never entered storylines as much as her engagement in family matters.Hope in â€Å"Thirtysomething† is an angel, committed to husband Michael and daughter Janey. In the biographies written for each of the characters when the show was in development, all male characters were defined in terms of their career goals, beliefs, and activities. Hope’s biography consisted of one line: â€Å"Hope is married to Michael† (Faludi, 1991, p. 162). Hope epitomizes the traditional woman, so much so in fact that in one episode she refers to herself as June Cleaver and calls Michael â€Å"Ward,† thus reprising the traditional family of the 1950s as personified in â€Å"Leave It to Beaver† (Faludi, 1991, p. 61). Meanwhile, prime-time typically represents ambitious, independent women as lonely, embittered spinsters who are counterpoints to â€Å"good† women. Stereotypical Images of Relationships Between Men and Women Given media’s stereotypical portrayals of women and men, we shouldn’t be surprised to find that relationships between women and men are similarly depicted in ways that reinforce stereotypes. Four themes demonstrate how media reflect and promote traditional arrangements between the sexes. Women’s dependence/men’s independence.Walt Disney’s award-winning animated film The Little Mermaid vividly embodies females’ dependence on males for identity. In this feature film, the mermaid quite literally 33 1 +3 LIVING WITH MEDIA I PAUL I wouldn’t say this around anyone, but personally I’d be glad if the media let up a little on us guys. I watch those guys in films and on TV, and I just feel inadequate. I mean, I’m healthy and I look okay, and I’ll probably make a decent salary when I graduate. But I am no stud; I can’t beat up three guys at once women don’t fall dead at my feet; I doubt I’ll make i million bucks; and I don’t have muscles that ripple.Every time I go to a film, I leave feeling like a wimp. How can any of us guys measure up to what’s on the screen? I gives up her identity as a mermaid in order to become acceptable to her human lover. In this children’s story, we see a particularly obvious illustration of the asymmetrical relationship between women and men that is more subtly conveyed in other media productions. Even the Smurfs, formless little beings who have no obvious sex, reflect the male-female, dominant-submissive roles .The female smurf, unlike her male companions who have names, is called only Smurfette, making her sole identity a diminutive relation to male smurfs. The male dominance/female subservience pattern that permeates mediated representations of relationships is no accident. Beginning in 1991, television executives deliberately and consciously adopted a policy of having dominant male characters in all Saturday morning children’s programming (Carter, 1991). Women, as well as minorities, are cast in support roles rather than leading ones in both children’s shows and the commercials interspersed within them (O’Connor 1989).Analyses of MTV revealed that it portrays females as passive and waiting for men’s attention, while males are shown ignoring, exploiting or directing women (Brown, Campbell, & Fisher, 1986). In rap music videos, where African-American men and women star men dominate women, whose primary role is as objects of male desires (Pareles, 1990; Texier, 1990). News programs that have male and female hosts routinely cast the female as deferential to her male colleague (Craft, 1988; Sanders & Rock, 1988). Commercials, too, manifest power cues that echo the male dominance/female subservience pattern.For instance, men are usually shown positioned above women, and women are more frequently pictured in varying degrees of undress (Masse & Rosenblum 1988; N&o, Hill, Gelbein, & Clark, 1988). Such nonverl bal cues represent women as vulnerable and more submissive while men stay in control. In a brief departure from this pattern, films and television beginning in the 1970s responded to the second wave of feminism by showing women who were independent without being hard, embittered, or without close relationships. Films such as Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore, Up the Sandbox, The Turning Point, Diary of a Mad 34Housewife, and An Unmarried Woman offered realistic portraits of women who sought and found their awn voices independent of me n. Judy Davis’s film, My BriZZiant Career, particularly embodied this focus by telling the story of a woman who chooses work over marriage. During this period, television followed suit, offering viewers prime-time fare such as â€Å"Maude† and â€Å"The Mary Tyler Moore Show,† which starred women who were able and achieving in their own rights. â€Å"One Day at a Time rr which premiered in 1974, was the first prime-time program about a divorced woman.By the 198Os, however, traditionally gendered arrangements resurged as the backlash movement against feminism was embraced by media (Haskell, 1988; Maslin 1990). Thus, film fare in the 1980s included Pretfy Woman’ the story of a prostitute who becomes a good woman when she is saved from her evil ways by a rigidly stereotypical man, complete with millions to prove his success Meanwhile, Tie Me Up, Tie Me Down trivialized abuse of women and underlined women’s dependence on men with a story of a woman wh o is bound by a man and colludes in sustaining her bondage.Crossing Delancey showed successful careerist Amy Irving talked into believing she needs a man to be complete, a theme reprised by Cher in Moonstruck. Television, too, cooperated in returning women to their traditional roles with characters like Hope in â€Å"Thirtysomething† who minded house and baby as an ultratraditional wife, and even Murphy Brown found her career wasn’t enough and had a baby Against her protests, Cybill Shepherd, who played Maddie in â€Å"Moonlighting† was forced to marry briefly on screen which Susan Faludi (1991, p. 57) refers to as part of a â€Å"campaign to cow this independent female figure. † Popular music added its voice with hit songs like â€Å"Having My Baby,† which glorified a woman who defined herself by motherhood and her relationship to a man. The point is not that having babies or committing to relationships is JOANNE I’d like to know who dreams up those commercials that show men as unable to boil water or run a vacuum. I’d like to tell them they’re creating monsters. My boyfriend and I agreed to split all chores equally when we moved in together. Ha! Fat chance of that. He does zilch.When I get on his case, he reminds me of what happened when the father on some show had to take over housework and practically demolished the kitchen. Then he grins and says, â€Å"Now, you wouldn’t want that, would you? † Or worse yet, he throws up Hope or one of the other women on W, and asks me why I can’t be as sweet and supportive as she is. It’s like the junk on television gives him blanket license for doing nothing. 7. Gendered Medi wrong; rather, it is that media virtually require this of women in order to present them positively Media define a very narrow range for womanhood.Joining the campaign to restore traditional dominantsubordinate patterns of male-female relationships were magazines, w hich reinvigorated their focus on women’s role as the helpmate and supporter of husbands and families (Peirce, 1990). In 1988, that staple of Americana Good Housekeeping, did its part to revive women’s tradi: tional roles with a full-page ad (â€Å"The Best in the House n 1988) for its new demographic edition marketed to’ â€Å"the new traditionalist woman. A month later, the magazine followed this up with a second full-page ad in national newspapers that saluted the â€Å"new traditionalist woman m with this copy (â€Å"The New Traditionalist,† 1988): â€Å"She his made her commitment. Her mission: create a more meaningful life for herself and her family She is the New Traditionalist-a contemporary woman who finds her fulfillment in traditional values. † The long-standing dominant-submissive model for male-female relationships was largely restored in the 1980s. With only rare exceptions, women are still portrayed as dependent on men and subserv ient to them.As B. Lott (1989, p. 64) points out, it is women who â€Å"do the laundry and are secretaries to men who own companies. † Men’s authority/women’s incompetence. A second recurrent theme in media representations of relationships is that men are the competent authorities who save women from their incompetence. Children’s literature vividly implements this motif by casting females as helpless and males as coming to their rescue. Sleeping Beauty’s resurrection depends on Prince Charming’s kiss, a theme that appears in the increasingly popular gothic romance novels for adults (Modleski, 1982).One of the most pervasive ways in which media define males as authorities is in commercials. Women are routinely shown anguishing over dirty floors and bathroom fixtures only to be relieved of their distress when Mr. Clean shows up to tell them how to keep their homes spotless. Even when commercials are aimed at women selling products intended fo r them, up to 90% of the tim: a man’s voice is used to explain the value of what is being sold (Basow, 1992, p. 161; Bretl & Cantor 1988). using male voice-overs reinforces the cultural v&w that men are authorities and women depend on men to tell them what to do.Television further communicates the message that men are authorities and women are not. One means of doing this is sheer numbers. As we have seen, men vastly outnumber women in television programming. In addition, the dominance of men as news anchors who inform us of happenings in the world underlines their authority (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989). Prime-time television contributes to this image by showing women who need to be rescued by men and by presenting women as incompetent more than twice as often as men (Bayer, 1986; Lichter et al. , 1986).Consider the characters in â€Å"The Jetsons,† an animate, television series set in the future. Daughter Judy Jetso is constantly complaining and waitin g for others to he1 her, using ploys of helplessness and flattery to win men’ attention. The Rescuers, a popular animated video of the 199Os, features Miss Bianca (whose voice is that of Zs: Zsa Gabon fittingly enough), who splits her time evenl) between being in trouble and being grateful to mah characters for rescuing her. These stereotypical repre sentations of males and females reinforce a number o; harmful beliefs.They suggest, first, that men are more competent than women. Compounding this is the message that a woman’s power lies in her looks and conventional femininity since that is how females from Sleeping Beauty to Judy Jetson get males to assist them with their dilemmas (McCauley Thangavelu, & Rozin 1988). Third, these stereotypes underline the requiremen; that men must perform, succeed, and conquer in order to be worthy Women as primary caregiverslmen as breadwinners. A third perennial theme in media is that women are caregivers and men are providers.Since the backlash of the 198Os, in fact, this gendered arrangement has been promulgated with renewed vigor. Once again, as in the 195Os, we see women devoting themselves to getting rings off of collars, gray out of their hair, and meats on the table. Corresponding to this is the restatement of men’s inability in domestic and nurturing roles. Horovitz (1989), for instance, reports that in commercials men are regularly the butt of jokes for their ignorance about nutrition, child care, and housework When media portray women who work outside of the home, their career lives typicallyFreceive little or no attention.Although these characters have titles such as lawyer or doctor, they are shown predominantly in their roles as homemakers, mothers, and wives. We see them involved in caring conversations with family and friends and doing things for others, all of which never seem to conflict with their professional responsibilities. This has the potential to cultivate unrealistic expectation s of being Isuperwoman,† who does it all without her getting a hair out of place or being late to a conference. Magazines play a key role in promoting pleasing others as a primary focus of women’s lives. K.Peirce’s (1990) study found that magazines aimed at women stress looking good and doing things to please others. Thus, advertising tells women how to be â€Å"me, only better† by dyeing their hair to look younger; how to lose weight so â€Å"you’ll still be attractive to him†; and how to prepare gourmet meals so â€Å"he’s always glad to come home. † Constantly these advertisements emphasize pleasing others, especially men, as central to being a woman, and the message is fortified with the thinly veiled warning that if a woman fails to look good and please, her man might leave (Rakow, 1992).There is a second, less known way in which advertisements contribute to stereotypes of women as focused 1 + LIVING WITH MEDIA on others an d men as focused on work. Writing in 1990, Gloria Steinem, editor of Ms. , revealed that advertisers control some to most of the content in magazines. In exchange for placing an ad, a company receives â€Å"complimentary copy† which is one or more articles that increase the market appeal of its product.So a soup company that takes out an ad might be given a three-page story on how to prepare meals using that brand of soup; likewise, an ad for hair coloring products might be accompanied by interviews with famous women who choose to dye their hair. Thus, the message of advertisers is multiplied by magazine content, which readers often mistakenly assume is ,independent of advertising. Advertisers support media, and they exert a powerful influence on what is presented. To understand the prevalence of traditional gender roles in programming, magazine copy, and other media, we need only ask what is in the best interests of advertisers.They want to sponsor shows that create or expan d markets for their products. Media images of women as sex objects, devoted homemakers, and mothers buttress the very roles in which the majority of consuming takes place. To live up to these images, women have to buy cosmetics and other personal care products, diet aids, food, household cleaners, utensils and appliances, clothes and toys for children, and so on. In short, it is in advertisers’ interests to support programming and copy that feature women in traditional roles.In a recent analysis, Lana Rakow (1992) demonstrated that much advertising is oppressive to women and is very difficult to resist, even when one is a committed feminist. Women’s role in the home and men’s role outside of it are reinforced by newspapers and news programming. Both emphasize men’s independent activities and, in fact, define news almost entirely as stories about and by men (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989). Stories about men focus on work and/or their achieveme nts (Luebke, 1989), reiterating the cultural message that men are supposed to do, perform.Meanwhile the few stories about women almost invariably focus on their roles as wives, mothers, and homemakers (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989). Even stories about women who are in the news because of achievements and professional activities typically dwell on marriage, family life, and other aspects of women’s traditional role (Foreit et al. , 1980). Women as victims and sex objectslmen as aggressors. A final theme in mediated representations of relationships between women and men is representation of women as subject to men’s sexual desires.The irony of this representation is that the very qualities women are encouraged to develop (beauty, sexiness, passivity, and powerlessness) in order to meet cultural ideals of femininity contribute to their victimization. Also, the qualities that men are urged to exemplify (aggressiveness, dominance, sexuality, and strength) are identical to those linked to abuse of women. It is no coincidence that all but one of the women nominated for Best Actress in the 36 1988 Academy Awards played a victim (Faludi, 1991, p. 138). Women are portrayed alternatively either as decorative objects, who must attract a man o be valuable, or as victims of men’s sexual impulses. Either way, women are defined by their bodies and how men treat them. Their independent identities and endeavors are irrelevant to how they are represented in media, and their abilities to resist exploitation by others are obscured. This theme, which was somewhat toned down during the 197Os, returned with vigor in the 1980s as the backlash permeated media. According to S. A. Basow (1992, p. 160), since 1987 there has been a â€Å"resurgence of male prominence, pretty female sidekicks, female homemakers. † Advertising in magazines also communicates the message that women are sexual objects.While men are seldom pictured nude or even partially unclothed, women habitually are. Advertisements for makeup, colognes, hair products, and clothes often show women attracting men because they got the right products and made themselves irresistible. Stars on prime-time and films, who are beautiful and dangerously thin, perpetuate the idea that women must literally starve themselves to death to win men’s interest (Silverstein et al. , 1986). Perhaps the most glaring examples of portrayals of women as sex objects and men as sexual aggressors occur in music videos as shown on MTV and many other stations.Typically, females are shown dancing provocatively in scant and/or revealing clothing as they try to gain men’s attention (Texier, 1990). Frequently, men are seen coercing women into sexual activities and/or physically abusing them. Violence against women is also condoned in many recent films. R. Warshaw (1991) reported that cinematic presentations of rapes, especially acquaintance rapes, are not presented as power-motiva ted violations of women but rather as strictly sexual encounters.Similarly, others (Cowan, Lee, Levy, & Snyder, 1988; Cowan & O’Brien, 1990) have found that male dominance and sexual exploitation of women are themes in virtually all R-and X-rated films, which almost anyone may now rent for home viewing. These media images carry to extremes long-standing cultural views of masculinity as aggressive and femininity as passive. They also make violence seem sexy (D. Russell, 1993). In so doing, they recreate these limited and limiting perceptions in the thinking of another generation of women and men. In sum, we have identified basic stereotypes and relationships between the two.IndividualIy and in combination these images sustain and reinforce socially constructed views of the genders, views that have restricted both men and women and that appear to legitimize destructive behaviors ranging from anorexia to battering. Later in this chapter, we will probe more closely how media vers ions of gender are linked to problems such as these. . . . 7. Gendered Media pathologizing the Human Body One of the most damaging consequences of media’s images of women and men is that these images encourage us to perceive normal bodies and normal physical functions as problems.It’s understandable to wish we weighed a little more or less, had better developed muscles, and never had pimples or cramps. What is neither reasonable nor healthy, however, is to regard healthy, functional bodies as abnormal and unacceptable. Yet this is precisely the negative self-image cultivated by media portrayals of women and men. Because sex sells products (Muro, 1989), sexual and erotic images are the single most prominent characteristic of advertising (Courtney & Whipple, 1983).Further, advertising is increasingly objectifying men, which probably accounts for the rise in men’s weight training and cosmetic surgery Media, and especially advertising, are equal opportunity dehumani zers of both sexes. Not only do media induce us to think we should measure up to artificial standards, but they encourage us to see normal bodies and bodily functions as pathologies. A good example is the media’s construction of premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Historically, PMS has not been a problem, but recently it has been declared a disease (Richmond-Abbott, 1992).In fact, a good deal of research (Parlee, 1973, 1987) indicates that PMS affected very few women in earlier eras. After the war, when women were no longer needed in the work force, opinion changed and the term premenstrual tension was coined (Greene & Dalton, 1953) and used to define women as inferior employees. In 1964, only one article on PMS appeared; in 1988-1989, a total of 425 were published (Tavris, 1992, p. 140). Drug companies funded research and publicity since selling PMS meant selling their remedies for the newly created problem.Behind the hoopla, however, there was and is little evidence to support the currently widespread belief that PMS is a serious problem for a significant portion of the female population. Facts aside, the myth has caught on, carrying in its wake many women and men who now perceive normal monthly changes as abnormal and as making women unfit for positions of leadership and authority Another consequence of defining PMS as a serious problem most women suffer is that it leads to labeling women in general as deviant and unreliable (Unger & Crawford, 1992), an image that fortifies long-held biases against women.Menopause is similiarly pathologized. Carol Tavris (1992, p. 159) notes that books describe menopause â€Å"in terms of deprivation, deficiency, loss, shedding, and sloughing† language that defines a normal process as negative. Like menstruation, menopause is represented as abnormalcy and disease, an image that probably contributes to the negative attitudes toward it in America. The cover of the May 25, 1992, Newsweek featured an abstract drawing of a tree in the shape of a woman’s head. The tree was stripped of all leaves, making it drab and barren.Across the picture was the cover-story headline â€Å"Menopause. † From first glance, menopause was represented negatively-as desolate and unfruitful. The article ‘focused primarily on the problems and losses of menopause. Only toward the end did readers find reports from anthropologists, whose cross-cultural research revealed that in many cultures menopause is not an issue or is viewed positively Women in Mayan villages and the Greek island of Evia do not understand questions about . hot flashes and depression, which are symptoms often associated with menopause in Western societies (â€Å"Menopause,† 1992, p. 7). These are not part of their experience in cultures that do not define a normal change in women as a pathology Because Western countries, especially America, stigmatize menopause and define it as â€Å"the end of womanhood,† Western women a re likely to feel distressed and unproductive about the cessation of menstruation (Greer, 1992). Advertising is very effective in convincing us that we need products to solve problems we are unaware of until some clever public relations campaign persuades us that something natural about us is really unnatural and unacceptable.Media have convinced millions of American women that what every medical source considers â€Å"normal body weight† is really abnormal and cause for severe dieting (Wolf, 1991). Similarly, gray hair, which naturally develops with age, is now something all of us, especially women, are supposed to cover up. Facial lines, which indicate a person has lived a life and accumulated experiences, can be removed so that we look younger-a prime goal in a culture that glorifies youth (Greer, 1992).Body hair is another interesting case of media’s convincing us that something normal is really abnormal. Beginning in 1915, a sustained marketing campaign informed w omen that underarm hair was unsightly and socially incorrect. (The campaign against leg hair came later. ) Harper’s Bazaar, an upscale magazine, launched the crusade against underarm hair with a photograph of a woman whose raised arms revealed clean-shaven armpits. Underneath the photograph was this caption: â€Å"Summer dress and modem dancing combine to make necessary the removal of objectionable hair† (Adams, 1991)†¦Within a few years, ads promoting removal of underarm hair appeared in most women’s magazines, and by 1922, razors and depilatories were firmly ensconced in middle America as evidenced by their inclusion in the women’s section of the Sears Roebuck catalog. Media efforts to pathologize natural physiology can be very serious. As we have seen in prior chapters, the emphasis on excessive thinness contributes to severe and potentially lethal dieting, especially in Caucasian women (Spitzack, 1993).Nonetheless, the top female models in 1993 a re skeletal, more so than in recent years (Leland & Leonard, 1993). Many women’s natural breast size exceeded the cultural ideal in the 1960s when thin, angular bodies were represented as ideal. Thus, breast reduction surgeries rose. By the 198Os, cultural standards changed 37 1 6 LIVING WITH MEDIA to define large breasts as the feminine ideal. Consequently, breast augmentation surgeries accelerated, and fully 80% of implants were for cosmetic reasons (â€Å"The. Implant Circus,† 1992).In an effort to meet the cultural standards of beautiful bodies, many women suffered unnecessary surgery, which led to disfigurement, loss of feeling, and sometimes death for women when silicone implants were later linked to fatal conditions. Implicitlp media argue that our natural state is abnormal and objectionable, a premise that is essential to sell products and advice for improving ourselves. Accepting media messages about our bodies and ourselves, however, is not inevitable: We can reflect on the messages and resist those that are inappropriate and/or harmful.We would probably all be considerably happier and healthier if we became more critical in analyzing media’s communication about how we should look, be, and act. Normalizing Violence Against Women harmful, while sexually violent materials appear to be (Donnerstein, Linz, & Penrod, 1987). Pornographic films are a big business, outnumbering other films by 3 to 1 and grossing over $365 million a year in the United States alone (Wolf, 1991). The primary themes characteristic of pornography as a genre are extremes of those in media generally: sex, violence, and domination of one person by another, usually women by men (Basow, 1992, p. 17). More than 80% of X-rated films in one study included scenes in which one or more men dominate and exploit one or more women; within these films, three-fourths portray physical aggression against women, and fully half explicitly depict rape (Cowan et al. , 1988). That these are linked to viewers’ MYTHS Myth Rape is a sexual act that resuits from sexual urges. Rapists are abnormal. AND FACTS Fact ABOUT RAPE Since we have seen that media positively portray aggression in males and passivity in females, it’s important to ask whether media messages contribute to abuse of and violence against women.There is by now fairly convincing evidence (Hansen & Hansen, 1988) that exposure to sexual violence through media is linked to greater tolerance, or even approval, of violence. For instance, I? Dieter (1989) found a strong relationship between females’ viewing of sexually violent MTV and their acceptance of sexual violence as part of â€Å"normal† relationships. He reasoned that the more they observe positive portrayals of sexual violence, the more likely women are to perceive this as natural in relationships with men and the less likely they are to object to violence or to defend themselves from it.In short, Dieter suggests that heavy exposure to media tiolence within relationships tends to normalize it, so that abuse and violence are considered natural parts of love and sex. Dieter’s study demonstrates a direct link between sexual aggression and one popular form of media, MTV. Research on pornography further corroborates connections between exposure to portrayals of violence against women and willingness to engage in or accept it in one’s own relationships (Russell, 1993). Before we discuss this research, however, we need to clarify what we will mean by the term pornography, since defining it is a matter of some controversy.Pornography is not simply sexually explicit material. To distinguish pornography from erotica, we might focus on mutual agreement and mutual benefit. If we use these criteria, pornography may be defined as materials that favorably show subordination and degradation of a person such as presenting sadistic behaviors as pleasurable, brutalizing and pain as enjoyable, and forc ed sex or abuse as positive. Erotica, on the other hand, depicts consensual sexual activities that are sought by and pleasurable to all parties involved (MacKinnon, 1987).These distinctions are important, since it has been well established that graphic sexual material itself is not 38 Rape is an aggressive act used to dominate another. Rapists have not been shown to differ from nonrapists in personality, psychology, adjustment, or involvment in interpersonal relationships. Eighty percent to 90% of rapes are committed by a person known to the victim (Allgeier, 1987). Most rapes occur between strangers. Most rapists are African-Ameri- More than three-fourths of all can men, and most victims rapes occur within races, not are Caucasian women. between races.This myth reflects racism. The way a woman dresses affects the likelihood she will be raped. The majority-up to 90%-of rapes are planned in advance and without knowledge of how the victim will dress (Scully, 1990). The majority of rap es are never reported (Koss, Cidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987). Less than 10% of rape reports are judged false, the same as for other violent crimes. The incidence of rape varies across cultures. It is highest in societies with ideologies of male dominance and a disregard for nature; it is lowest in cultures that respect women and feminine values Griffin 1981).False reports of rapes are frequent. Rape is a universal problem own tendencies to engage in sexual violence is no longer disputable. According to recent research (Demare, Briere, & Lips, 1988; Donnerstein et al. , 1987; Malamuth & Briere, 1986), viewing sexually violent material tends to in- 7. Gendered Media crease men’s beliefs in rape myths, raises the likelihood thnt men will admit they might themselves commit rape, and desensitizes men to rape, thereby making forced sex more acceptable to them.This research suggests that repeated exposure to pornography influences how men think about rape by transforming it from an unac ceptable behavior with which they do not identify into one they find acceptable and enticing. Not surprisingly, the single best predictor of rape is the circulation of pomographic materials that glorify sexual force and exploitation (Baron & Straus, 1989). This is alarming when we realize that 18 million men buy a total of 165 different pornographic magazines every month in the United States (Wolf, 1991, p. 79).It is well documented that the incidence of reported rape is rising and that an increasing number of men regard forced sex as acceptable (Brownmiller, 1993; Soeken & Danirosch, 1986). Studies of men (Allgeier, 1987; Koss & Dinero, 1988; Koss, Dinero, Seibel, & Cox, 1988; Koss Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987; Lisak & Roth, 1988) hav: produced shocking findings: While the majority of college men report not having raped anyone, a stunning 50% admit they have coerced, manipulated, or pressured a woman to have sex or have had sex with her after getting her drunk; 1 in 12 men at some co lleges has engaged in behaviors meeting the legal definition of rape r attempted rape; over 80% of men who admitted to acts that meet the definition of rape did not believe they had committed rape; and fully one-third of college men said they would commit rape if they believed nobody would find out. Contrary to popular belief, we also know that men who do commit rape are not psychologically abnormal. They are indistinguishable from other men in terms of psychological adjustment and health, emotional wellbeing, heterosexual relationships, and frequency of sexual experiences (Segel-Evans, 1987).The only established difference between men who are sexually violent and men who are not is that the former have â€Å"hypermasculine† attitudes and self-concepts-their approval of male dominance and sexual rights is even stronger than that of nonrapists (Allgeier, 1987; Koss & Dinero 1988. Lisak & Roth, 1988; Wood, 1993a). The difference b&ween sexually violent men and others appears to be only a matter of degree. We also know something about women who are victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence.Between 33% and 66% of all women have been sexually abused before reaching age 18 (Clutter, 1990; Koss, 1990). The majority of college women-up to 75%-say they have been coerced into some type of unwanted sex at least once (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987; Poppen & Segal 1988; Warshaw, 1988). A third of women who survivi *ape contemplate suicide (Koss et al. , 1988). It is also clear that the trauma of rape is not confined to the time of its actual occurrence.The feelings that accompany rape and sexual assault-fear, a sense of degradation and shame, anger, powerlessness, and depression-endure far beyond the act itself (Brownmiller, 1975; Wood 1992b 19930. Most victims of rape continue to deal v&h the emotional aftermath of rape for the rest of their lives (Marhoefer-Dvorak, Resick, Hutter, & Girelli, 1988). What causes rape, now the fastest growing violent crim e in the United States (Doyle, 1989; Soeken & Damrosch, 1986)?According to experts (Costin & Schwartz 1987; Koss & Dinero, 1988; Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski’ 1987; Scott & Tetreault, 1987; Scully, 1990), rape is not the result of psychological deviance or uncontrollable lust. Although rape involves sex, it is not motivated by sexual desire. Authorities agree that rape is an aggressive act used to dominate and show power over another person, be it a man over a woman or one man over another as in prison settings where rape is one way inmates brU1 talize one another and establish a power hierarchy (Rideau & Sinclair, 1982).Instead, mounting evidence suggests that rape is a predictable outcome of views of men, women, and relationships between the sexes that our society inculcates in members (Brownmiller, 1975. Costin & Schwartz, 1987; Scott & Tetreault, 1987; South & Felson, 1990). Particularly compelling support for the cultural basis of rape comes from cross-cultural studies (Gr iffin, 1981. Sanday, 1986), which reveal that rape is extremely rar: in cultures that value women and feminine qualities and that have ideologies that promote harmonious interdependence among humans and between them and the natural world.Rape is most common in countries, like the United States, that have ideologies of male supremacy and dominance and a disrespect of women and nature. Cultural values communicated to us by family schools, media, and other sources constantly encourage us to believe men are superior, men should dominate women, male aggression is acceptable as a means of attaining what is wanted, women are passive and should defer to men, and women are sex objects. In concert these beliefs legitimize violence and aggression agains; women.While the majority of media communication may not be pornographic, it does echo in somewhat muted forms the predominant themes of pornography: sex, violence and male domination of women. As we have seen, thesi same motifs permeate media that are part of our daily lives, which generally portray males as dominating in number, status, authority, and will. Substantial violence toward women punctuates movies, television-including children’s programming-rock music, and music videos desensitizing men and women alike to the unnatural~ ness and unacceptability of force and brutality between human beings.Thus, the research that demonstrates connections between sex-stereotypical media and acceptance of sexual violence is consistent with that showing relationships between more extreme, pornographic media and acceptance of and use of violence. . . . 39 REFERENCES Adams, C. (1991, April). The straight dope. 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